Neighborhood Deprivation Is Associated with Lower Levels of Serum Carotenoids among Adults Participating in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Abstract
Objective
This study tested the hypothesis that neighborhood deprivation will be associated with lower levels of serum carotenoids in comparison with wealthy residential areas.
Design
Cross-sectional, nationally representative survey data were used to assess the relationship between neighborhood level socioeconomic status and serum carotenoids.
Subjects
Seventeen thousand two participants aged 17 years and older from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were linked with 1990 census data.
Main outcome measures
Serum levels of lycopene, β-carotene, α-carotene, lutein/zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin.
Statistical analysis
Multivariate linear regression was used to model the association of serum carotenoids and neighborhood deprivation, which is a summary index of 11 indicators for tract level socioeconomic status. Adjustments are made for individual level age, sex, years of education, household income, employment, race/ethnicity, body mass index, serum cotinine, alcohol use, physical activity, and serum cholesterol.
Results
Multivariate analysis revealed a negative and statistically significant association between high levels of neighborhood deprivation and β-carotene (β=−2.98 μg/dL [−0.06 μmol/L], P=0.00), α-carotene (β=−1.28 μg/dL [−0.02 μmol/L], P=<0.0001), lutein/zeaxanthin (−1.69 μg/dL [−0.03 μmol/L], P=0.00, β-cryptoxanthin (β=−1.34 μg/dL [−0.02 μmol/L], P<0.0001), and total carotenoids (β=−8.20 μg/dL, P=<0.0001). Lycopene was not related to neighborhood deprivation. Adjusted mean levels of carotenoids for high deprivation neighborhoods were lower than neighborhoods with low deprivation: β-carotene=8.72 μg/dL [0.16 μmol/L] vs 20.64 μg/dL [0.38 μmol/L], α-carotene=0.44 μg/dL [0.008 μmol/L] vs 5.56 μg/dL [0.10 μmol/L], lutein/zeaxanthin=13.79 μg/dL [0.24 μmol/L] vs 20.55 μg/dL [0.36 μmol/L], β-cryptoxanthin=4.57 μg/dL [0.08 μmol/L] vs 9.93 μg/dL [0.18 μmol/L], lycopene=22.07 μg/dL [0.41 μmol/L] vs 25.63 μg/dL [0.48 μmol/L], and total=49.56 μg/dL vs 82.36 μg/dL.
Conclusions
Neighborhood deprivation was associated with lower serum levels of carotenoids. There was a substantial disparity between low deprivation and high deprivation residential areas with respect to fruit and vegetable intake.
Address correspondence to: Jim P. Stimpson, PhD, Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107-2699.
ABSTRACT